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Ray Birdwhistell (1918 – October 19, 1994) was an American anthropologist who founded kinesics as a field of inquiry and research.〔Danesi, M (2006). Kinesics. ''Encyclopedia of language & linguistics''. 207-213.〕 The term ''kinesics'', meaning "facial expression, gestures, posture and gait, and visible arm and body movements", was coined by Birdwhistell.〔Padula, A. (2009). Kinesics. In S. Littlejohn, & K. Foss (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of communication theory''. (pp. 582-584). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412959384.n217〕 He estimated that "no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words." 〔McDermott, R. (1980). Profile: Ray L. Birdwhistell. ''The Kinesics Report'', 2(3), 1-16.〕 Stated more broadly, he argued that "words are not the only containers of social knowledge."〔In an unpublished interview, quoted in Kendon, A., & Sigman, S. J. (1996). Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918-1994). ''Semiotica'', 112(1-2), 249.〕 He proposed other technical terms, including kineme, and many others less frequently used today.〔Ottenheimer, H.J. (2007). ''The anthropology of language: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. Kansas : Thomson Wadsworth. p129.〕 Birdwhistell had at least as much impact on the study of language and social interaction generally as just nonverbal communication because he was interested in the study of communication more broadly than is often recognized.〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (2010). The emergence of language and social interaction research as a specialty. In W. Leeds-Hurwitz (Ed.), ''The social history of language and social interaction research: People, places, ideas'' (pp. 3-60). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.〕 Birdwhistell understood body movements to be culturally patterned rather than universal.〔Kendon, A., & Sigman, S. J. (1996). Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918-1994). ''Semiotica'', 112(1-2), 231.〕 His students were required to read widely, sources not only in communication but also anthropology and linguistics.〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W., & Sigman, S. J. (2010). The Penn tradition. In W. Leeds-Hurwitz (Ed.), ''The social history of language and social interaction research: People, places, ideas''. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, p. 237.〕 Collaborations with others, including initially Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, and later, Erving Goffman and Dell Hymes had huge influence on his work. For example, the book he is best known for, ''Kinesics and Context,'' "would not have appeared if it had not been envisaged by Erving Goffman" 〔Birdwhistell, R. L. (1970). Kinesics and context: Essays in body motion communication. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, p. xiv.〕 and he explicitly stated "the paramount and sustaining influence upon my work has been that of anthropological linguistics",〔Birdwhistell, R. L. (1970). Kinesics and context: Essays in body motion communication. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 25.〕 a tradition most directly represented at the University of Pennsylvania by Hymes.〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W., & Sigman, S. J. (2010). The Penn tradition. In W. Leeds-Hurwitz (Ed.), The social history of language and social interaction research: People, places, ideas. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, p. 236.〕 ==Life and work== Birdwhistell was born in Cincinnati on September 28, 1918 and died October 19, 1994.〔Kendon, A., & Sigman, S. J. (1996). Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918-1994). ''Semiotica'', 112(1-2), 233.〕 He was raised and went to school in Ohio. He graduated from Fostoria High School in 1936, and was involved in the history club, debate team, journalism, and school plays.〔Kirby, E (2006). Ray Lee Birdwhistell. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from Biography Web: Minnesota State University Web site: http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/birdwhistell_ray.html〕 Birdwhistell received his BA in Sociology in 1940 from Miami University of Ohio, his MA in Anthropology in 1941 from Ohio State University, and his PhD in Anthropology in 1951 from the University of Chicago, where he studied with Lloyd Warner and Fred Eggan.〔Kendon, A., & Sigman, S. J. (1996). Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918-1994). ''Semiotica'', 112(1-2), 233-4.〕 From 1944 to 1946 he conducted dissertation fieldwork among the Kutenai Indians of British Columbia, Canada,〔Harold, E., & Tobin, S. Ray Birdwhistell. ''Cultural Equity'' website. Available from: http://www.culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ce_alanlomax_profile_birdwhistell.php〕 during which he first realized that tribal members moved differently depending on whether they were speaking English or Kutenai, which sparked his interest in nonverbal behavior.〔Wallace, A. (October 22, 1994). Ray Birdwhistell: Developed the study of body language. ''Philadelphia Inquirer''. Available from: http://articles.philly.com/1994-10-22/news/25872138_1_body-language-smile-researchers〕 While completing his dissertation, he taught at the University of Toronto (Ontario), where Erving Goffman was one of his students. From 1944 to 1948 he worked with G. Gordon Brown and Edmund S. Carpenter, who were in the same department as him at the University of Toronto.〔Department of Anthropology. (n.d.). A brief history of Anthropology at University of Toronto. Retrieved February 26, 2014 from http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/history〕 In 1946 he took a position at the University of Louisville, Kentucky, where he taught for 10 years,〔 and helped in racial integration of the university.〔 While there he established the Interdisciplinary Committee on Culture and Communication,〔Kendon, A., & Sigman, S. J. (1996). Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918-1994). ''Semiotica'', 112(1-2), 234.〕 and organized a series of annual seminars on Culture and Communication,〔 resulting in the publication of ''Explorations in Communication''.〔Carpenter, E., & McLuhan, M. (Eds.). (1960). ''Explorations in communication: An anthology''. Boston: Beacon Press.〕 In addition to Edmund Snow Carpenter, Marshall McLuhan, and Birdwhistell, Lawrence K. Frank, Robert Graves, Dorothy D. Lee, and David Riesman contributed. Through the 1950s he participated in multiple interdisciplinary collaborations: at the Foreign Service Institute of the United States Department of State, where he first outlined his ideas about the study of nonverbal behavior, working with Edward T. Hall, Henry Lee Smith, George L. Trager, Charles F. Hockett;〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of intercultural communication: The Foreign Service Institute and the mandate for intercultural training. ''Quarterly Journal of Speech,'' 76, 262-281.〕 at the Macy Conferences on Group Processes, with Gregory Bateson, Margaret Mead, and many others;〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1994). Crossing disciplinary boundaries: The Macy Foundation Conferences on Cybernetics as a case study in multidisciplinary communication. ''Cybernetica: Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics,'' 3/4, 349-369.〕 and at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, where he participated in the ''Natural History of an Interview'' project with Gregory Bateson, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Norman A. McQuown, Henry W. Brosin, and others.〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1987). The social history of The Natural History of an Interview: A multidisciplinary investigation of social communication. ''Research on Language and Social Interaction'', 20, 1-51.〕 Birdwhistell taught at the State University of New York at Buffalo from 1956-59.〔 In 1959 he was appointed Senior Research Scientist at the Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute 〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1993). Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute (EPPI). In L. Sfez (Ed.), ''Dictionnaire critique de la communication, Tome 2'' (dictionary of communication, Vol. 2 ). Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France, p. 1702.〕 in Philadelphia, where he managed a lab that included a fully equipped 16mm film studio, a resident cinematographer (Jacques van Vlack), an artist who illustrated research findings, and numerous graduate students and visitors who conferred with him and his colleague, psychiatrist Albert E. Scheflen.〔Davis, M. (2001). Film Projectors as Microscopes: Ray L. Birdwhistell & Microanalysis of Interaction (). ''Visual Anthropology Review'', 17(2), p. 39.〕 As a result, Birdwhistell was at the hub of an informal, interdisciplinary network of scholars in anthropology, ethology, linguistics, and psychiatry that "made up in vitality what it lacked in organization and professional identity." 〔 Birdwhistell argued strongly for the use of film as an essential tool in the study of nonverbal behavior as a way to permit "observation and analysis of human social behavior which has hitherto been hidden from comparative analysis".〔Birdwhistell, R. L. (1956). Kinesic analysis of filmed behavior of children. In B. Schaffner (Ed.), ''Group Processes: Transactions of the second conference''. New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, p. 144.〕 Together with Jacques van Vlack (the filmmaker), he prepared a series of films that were commercially available, although, as with his teaching, they were intended mostly for a technically trained audience. 1. ''Microcultural Incidents in Ten Zoos'', an edited version of a Birdwhistell and van Vlack presentation from an American Anthropological Association convention, compares family interactions while feeding elephants at 10 zoos based in 7 countries (England, France, Italy, India, Japan, Hong Kong, and the United States). Filming was viewed as a second step, following observation to discover recurrent patterns.〔Bateson, M. C. (1972). Review of ''Microcultural incidents in ten zoos''. ''American Anthropologist'', 74(1), p. 191.〕 Birdwhistell himself and Mead often showed this film to their students.〔 2. ''TDR- 009'', an eighty-minute 16 mm black-and-white sound film of an English pub scene in a middle class London hotel. Birdwhistell and van Vlack observed behavior of listeners in relationship to speakers during the film.〔 3. ''Lecture on Kinesics by Ray L. Birdwhistell at the Second Linguistic-Kinesic Conference Nov. 4–7, 1964'', is simply a documentary record of two lectures Birdwhistell presented to a seminar group assembled for a few days to learn from his research team at EPPI in 1964. Seminar participants were primarily senior research scientists, including linguists, psychiatrists, anthropologists, and psychologists; McQuown and Scheflen, working with Birdwhistell on the ''Natural History of an Interview'' project, were among the participants.〔Byers, P. (1972). Review of ''Lecture on Kinesics by Ray L. Birdwhistell at the Second Linguistic-Kinesic Conference Nov. 4–7, 1964''. ''American Anthropologist'', 74(1-2), p. 193.〕 Much of the work at EPPI was a continuation of the ''Natural History of an Interview'' project, working mostly with Scheflen, while Brosin continued different parts of the same project from the Western Psychiatric Institute & Clinic in Pennsylvania with Adam Kendon, William S. Condon, Kai Erikson, Harvey Sarles, and occasional visits from Bateson. The two teams kept in touch, meeting several days per month between 1960 and 1964 to complete their analysis.〔Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1987). The social history of The Natural History of an Interview: A multidisciplinary investigation of social communication. ''Research on Language and Social Interaction'', 20, p. 12.〕 A third team, under McQuown's direction at the University of Chicago, included Starkey Duncan, Jr., William M. Austin, Raven McDavid, Jr., and William Offenkrantz. The Chicago team focused on paralanguage (non-lexical aspects of voice, including intonation), while the Pennsylvania teams attended to kinesics (body motion communication).〔 The final report was completed in 1968, but proved unpublishable due to its length (5 volumes), and the complexity of the transcriptions (taking up 3 of the 5 volumes), so it was circulated via the microfilm series of the University of Chicago.〔McQuown, N. A. (Ed.). (1971). ''The natural history of an interview.'' Microfilm collections on cultural anthropology. Chicago: University of Chicago, Joseph Regenstein Library, Department of Photoduplication.〕 From 1969 until he retired in 1988, Birdwhistell held the position of professor at The Annenberg School for Communication, at the University of Pennsylvania,〔http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9501E4DB143FF936A15753C1A962958260〕 where he worked closely with Dell Hymes and Erving Goffman, brought Gregory Bateson in as a guest speaker,〔Winkin, Y., & Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (2013). ''Erving Goffman: A critical introduction to media and communication theory.'' New York: Peter Lang.〕 and influenced a new generation of students. It was commonly understood that "no serious doctoral student at the University of Pennsylvania who was interested in culture and human conduct" could avoid his courses.〔Kendon, A., & Sigman, S. J. (1996). Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918-1994). ''Semiotica'', 112(1-2), 249.〕 Birdwhistell reputedly came to the attention of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson when he attended a showing of one of their ethnographic films (they were pioneers of the use of film as an ethnographic tool). "Legend has it that Birdwhistell was a younger anthropologist listening to Mead and others comment on a Balinese film when he interjected something like, 'But did you see what the mother did with the baby after she took him out of the bath?' He then brought to their attention a fascinating medley of actions that occurred in a few seconds".〔Davis, M. (2001). Film Projectors as Microscopes: Ray L. Birdwhistell & Microanalysis of Interaction (). ''Visual Anthropology Review'', 17(2), pp. 41-42〕 Both Mead and Bateson became lifelong supporters and influences. He was also influenced by David Efron's earlier work, the first major study of the influence of culture on gesture 〔Efron, D. (1941). ''Gesture, race, and culture: A tentative study of the spatio-temporal and "linguistic" aspects of the gestural behavior of eastern Jews and southern Italians in New York City, living under similar as well as different environmental conditions''. The Hague: Mouton.〕 prepared under Franz Boas, noted American anthropologist, and Eliot D. Chapple's work on rhythms of dialogue (Chapple is the one who introduced the term interaction to the study of behavior, knocked down a wall at Harvard University so he could establish a one-way screen for observing conversations in the 1930s, and was an early adopter of computer analysis of interaction patterns in the 1960s).〔Davis, M. (2001). Film Projectors as Microscopes: Ray L. Birdwhistell & Microanalysis of Interaction (). ''Visual Anthropology Review'', 17(2), p. 41.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Ray Birdwhistell」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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